Capitalization

Rule 1: Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence.

Examples:

- He said, “Treat her as you would your own daughter.”

- “Look out!” she screamed. “You almost ran into my child.”

Rule 2: Capitalize a proper noun.

Example: Golden Gate Bridge

Rule 3: Capitalize a person’s title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the title is acting as a description following the name.

Examples:

- Chairperson Petrov

- Ms. Petrov, the chairperson of the company, will address us at noon.

Rule 4: Capitalize the person’s title when it follows the name on the address or signature line.

Example:

- Sincerely,

Ms. Haines, Chairperson

Rule 5: Capitalize the titles of high-ranking government officials when used with or before their names. Do not capitalize the civil title if it is used instead of the name.

Examples:

- The president will address Congress.

- All senators are expected to attend.

- The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task force.

- Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, Attorney General Dalloway, and Senators James and Twain will attend.

Rule 6: Capitalize any title when used as a direct address.

Example: Will you take my temperature, Doctor?

Rule 7: Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions.

Examples:

- We have had three relatives visit from the South.

- Go south three blocks and then turn left.

- We live in the southeast section of town.
- Southeast is just an adjective here describing section, so it should not be capitalized.

Rule 8: Always capitalize the first and last words of titles of publications regardless of their parts of speech. Capitalize other words within titles, including the short verb forms Is, Are, and Be.

Exceptions: Do not capitalize little words within titles such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, or prepositions, regardless of their length.

Examples:

- The Day of the Jackal

- What Color Is Your Parachute?

- A Tale of Two Cities

Rule 9: Capitalize federal or state when used as part of an official agency name or in government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they are being used as general terms, you may use lowercase letters.

Examples:

- The state has evidence to the contrary.

- That is a federal offense.

- The State Board of Equalization collects sales taxes.

- We will visit three states during our summer vacation.

- The Federal Bureau of Investigation has been subject to much scrutiny and criticism lately.

- Her business must comply with all county, state, and federal laws.

Rule 10: You may capitalize words such as department, bureau, and office if you have prepared your text in the following way:

Example: The Bureau of Land Management (Bureau) has some jurisdiction over Indian lands. The Bureau is finding its administrative role to be challenging.

Rule 11: Do not capitalize names of seasons.

Example: I love autumn colors and spring flowers.

Rule 12: Capitalize the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary close.

Examples:

- Dear Ms. Mohamed:

- My dear Mr. Sanchez:

- Very truly yours,

Rule 13: Capitalize words derived from proper nouns.

Examples: I must take English and math.
English is capitalized because it comes from the proper noun England, but math does not come from Mathland.

Rule 14: Capitalize the names of specific course titles.

Example: I must take history and Algebra 2.

Rule 15: After a sentence ending with a colon, do not capitalize the first word if it begins a list.

Example: These are my favorite foods: chocolate cake, spaghetti, and artichokes.

Rule 16: Do not capitalize when only one sentence follows a sentence ending with a colon.

Example: I love Jane Smiley’s writing: her book, A Thousand Acres, was beautiful.

Rule 17: Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a sentence ending with a colon.

Example: I love Jane Smiley’s writing: Her book, A Thousand Acres, was beautiful. Also, Moo was clever.

Dashes

There are many uses of the en and em dash and also many ways to form these dashes using your computer. The following explanations offer the most common uses and methods for forming these dashes.

En Dash: An en dash, roughly the width of an n, is a little longer than a hyphen. It is used for periods of time when you might otherwise use to.

Examples:

- The years 2001–2003

- January–June

An en dash is also used in place of a hyphen when combining open compounds.

Examples:

- North Carolina–Virginia border

- a high school–college conference

Most authorities recommend using no spaces before or after en or em dashes. To form an en dash with most PCs, type the first number or word, then hold down the ALT key while typing 0150 on the numerical pad on the right side of your keyboard. Then type the second number or word.

Em Dash: An em dash is the width of an m. Use an em dash sparingly in formal writing. In informal writing, em dashes may replace commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses to indicate added emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought.

Examples:

- You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help me.

- Never have I met such a lovely person—before you.

- I pay the bills—she has all the fun.
A semicolon would be used here in formal writing.

- I need three items at the store—dog food, vegetarian chili, and cheddar cheese.
Remember, a colon would be used here in formal writing.

- My agreement with Fiona is clear—she teaches me French and I teach her German.
Again, a colon would work here in formal writing.

- Please call my agent—Jessica Cohen—about hiring me.
Parentheses or commas would work just fine here instead of the dashes.

- I wish you would—oh, never mind.
This shows an abrupt change in thought and warrants an em dash.

To form an em dash on most PCs, type the first word, then hold down the ALT key while typing 0151 on the numerical pad on the right side of your keyboard. Then type the second word. You may also form an em dash by typing the first word, hitting the hyphen key twice, and then typing the second word. Your program will turn the two hyphens into an em dash for you.

While there are many more possible uses of the em dash, by not providing additional rules, I am hoping to curb your temptation to employ this convenient but overused punctuation mark.

Hyphens

Hyphens between words

Rules 1: To check whether a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you may need to look it up in the dictionary. If you can’t find the word in the dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.

Example: eyewitness, eye shadow, eye-opener

NOTE: All these words had to be looked up in the dictionary to know what to do with them!

Rules 2: Phrases that have verb, noun, and adjective forms should appear as separate words when used as verbs and as one word when used as nouns or adjectives.

Examples:

- The engine will eventually break down. (verb)

- We suffered a breakdown in communications. (noun)

- Please clean up your room. (verb)

- That Superfund site will require specialized cleanup procedures. (adjective)

Rules 3: Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as one word. If you do not find the verb in the dictionary, hyphenate it.

Examples:

- To air-condition the house will be costly.

- We were notified that management will downsize the organization next year.

Rules 4: Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a noun and act as a single idea.

Examples:

- friendly-looking man
(compound adjective in front of a noun)

- friendly little girl
(not a compound adjective)

- brightly lit room
(Brightly is an adverb describing lit, not an adjective.)

Rules 5: When adverbs not ending in -ly are used as compound words in front of a noun, hyphenate. When the combination of words is used after the noun, do not hyphenate.

Examples:

- The well-known actress accepted her award.

Well is an adverb followed by another descriptive word. They combine to form one idea in front of the noun.

- The actress who accepted her award was well known.
Well known follows the noun it describes, so no hyphen is used.

- A long-anticipated decision was finally made.

- He got a much-needed haircut yesterday.

- His haircut was much needed.

Rules 6: Remember to use a comma, not a hyphen, between two adjectives when you could have used and between them.

Examples:

- I have important, classified documents.

- Jennifer received a lovely, fragrant bouquet on Valentine’s Day.

Rules 7: Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples:

- The teacher had thirty-two children in her classroom.

- Only twenty-one of the children were bilingual.

Rules 8: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.

Examples:

- You need one-third of a cup of sugar for that recipe.

- More than one-half of the student body voted for removing soda machines from campus.

Hyphens with Prefixes:

Rules 1: The current trend is to do away with unnecessary hyphens. Therefore, attach most prefixes and suffixes onto root words without a hyphen.

Examples:

- noncompliance

– copayment

– semiconscious

– fortyish

Rules 2: Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns.

Example: un-American

Rules 3: Hyphenate prefixes ending in an a or i only when the root word begins with the same letter.

Examples:

- ultra-ambitious

- semi-invalid

Rules 4: When a prefix ends in one vowel and a root word begins with a different vowel, generally attach them without a hyphen.

Examples:

- antiaircraft

- proactive

Rules 5: Prefixes and root words that result in double e’s and double o’s are usually combined to form one word.

Examples:

- preemployment

– coordinate

Exceptions:

- de-emphasize

– co-owner

Rules 6: Hyphenate all words beginning with self except for selfish and selfless.

Examples:

- self-assured

- self-respect

- self-addressed

Rules 7: Use a hyphen with the prefix ex.

Example: His ex-wife sued for nonsupport.

Rules 8: Use the hyphen with the prefix re only when:
the re means again AND omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.

Examples:

- Will she recover from her illness?
Re does not mean again.

- I have re-covered the sofa twice.
Re does mean again AND omitting the hyphen would have caused confusion with another word.

- The stamps have been reissued.
Re means again but would not cause confusion with another word.

- I must re-press the shirt.
Re means again AND omitting the hyphen would have caused confusion with another word.

Parentheses

Rule 1: Use parentheses to enclose words or figures that clarify or are used as an aside.

Examples:

- I expect five hundred dollars ($500).

- He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.
Commas could have been used in the above example. Parentheses show less emphasis or importance. Em dashes, which could also have been used instead of parentheses, show emphasis.

Rule 2: Use full parentheses to enclose numbers or letters used for listed items.

Example: We need an emergency room physician who can (1) think quickly, (2) treat patients respectfully, and (3) handle complaints from the public.

Rule 3: Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.

Examples:

- Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).
OR
- Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.)
OR
- Please read the analysis (Attachment A).

Quotation Marks

Rule 1: Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes.

Examples:

- The sign changed from “Walk,” to “Don’t Walk,” to “Walk” again within 30 seconds.

- She said, “Hurry up.”

- She said, “He said, ‘Hurry up.’”

Rule 2: The placement of question marks with quotes follows logic. If a question is in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Examples:

- She asked, “Will you still be my friend?”

- Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair in love and war”?
Here the question is outside the quote.

NOTE: Only one ending punctuation mark is used with quotation marks. Also, the stronger punctuation mark wins. Therefore, no period after war is used.

Rule 3: When you have a question outside quoted material AND inside quoted material, use only one question mark and place it inside the quotation mark.

Example: Did she say, “May I go?”

Rule 4: Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all quote marks.

Example: He said, “Danea said, ‘Do not treat me that way.’”

Rule 5: Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.

Examples:

- “When will you be here?” he asked.

- He asked when you will be there.

Rule 6: Do not use quotation marks with quoted material that is more than three lines in length. See Colons, Rule 5, for style guidance with longer quotes.

Rule 7: When you are quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in brackets. Sic means, “This is the way the original material was.”

Example: She wrote, “I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister.”
Should be than, not then.

Exclamation Points

Rule: Use the exclamation point to show emphasis or surprise. Do not use the exclamation point in formal business writing.

Example: I’m truly shocked by your behavior!

Question Marks

Rule 1: Use a question mark only after a direct question.

Examples:

- Will you go with me?

- I asked if he would go with me.

Rule 2: Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.

Example: You do care, don’t you?

Colons

Rule 1: Use the colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items when introductory words such as namely, for example, or that is do not appear.

Examples:

- You may be required to bring many items: sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

- I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.

- I want an assistant who can do the following: (1) input data, (2) write reports, and (3) complete tax forms.

Rule 2: A colon should not precede a list unless it follows a complete sentence; however, the colon is a style choice that some publications allow.

Examples:

If a waitress wants to make a good impression on her customers and boss, she should (a) dress appropriately, (b) calculate the bill carefully, and (c) be courteous to customers.

There are three ways a waitress can make a good impression on her boss and her customers:
(a) Dress appropriately.
(b) Calculate the bill carefully.
(c) Be courteous to customers.

I want an assistant who can (1) input data, (2) write reports, and (3) complete tax forms.

Rule 3: Capitalization and punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases in bulleted form. If each bullet or numbered point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end each sentence with proper ending punctuation. The rule of thumb is to be consistent.

Examples:

I want an assistant who can do the following:
(a) input data,
(b) write reports, and
(c) complete tax forms.

The following are requested:
(a) Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
(b) Wet suits for snorkeling.
(c) Introductions to the local dignitaries.

OR

The following are requested:

(a) wool sweaters for possible cold weather

(b) wet suits for snorkeling

(c) introductions to the local dignitaries

NOTE: With lists, you may use periods after numbers and letters instead of parentheses.

These are some of the pool rules:
1. Do not run.
2. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
3. Have fun!

Rule 4: Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences. If only one sentence follows the colon, do not capitalize the first word of the new sentence. If two or more sentences follow the colon, capitalize the first word of each sentence following.

Examples:

- I enjoy reading: novels by Kurt Vonnegut are among my favorites.

- Garlic is used in Italian cooking: It greatly enhances the flavor of pasta dishes. It also enhances the flavor of eggplant.

Rule 5: Use the colon to introduce a direct quotation that is more than three lines in length. In this situation, leave a blank line above and below the quoted material. Single space the long quotation. Some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.

Examples:

The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter:

Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in “hyper mode” again where nothing could calm him down.

He’d been talking nonstop for a week about remodeling projects, following her around the house as she tried to escape his chatter. He was just about to crash, she knew.

Rule 6: Use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter even when addressing someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a salutation. A comma is used after the salutation for personal correspondence.

Example: Dear Ms. Rodriguez:

Semicolons

Rule 1: Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out.

Examples:

- Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then.

- I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in the contract.

Rule 2: It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word.

Examples:

- You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better.

-  As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are not optional.

Rule 3: Use either a semicolon or a comma before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a list following a complete sentence. Use a comma after the introductory word.

Examples:

- You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

- You will want to bring many backpacking items, for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

Rule 4: Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.

Example: This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee.

Rule 5: Use the semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence.

Examples:

- When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.

- If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her.

Commas

Rule 1: To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more.

Example: My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.

Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.

Rule 2: Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.

Example:

- He is a strong, healthy man.

- We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.)

Rule 3: Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives.

NOTE: To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma.

Example:

- Felix was a lonely, young boy.

- I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. (Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit.)

Rule 4: Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.

Examples: Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me? Yes, Doctor, I will.

NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone.

Rule 5a: Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.

Example: Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.

Rule 5b: If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.

Example: They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.

Rule 6: Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document, you do not need a comma after the state.

NOTE: With addresses on envelopes mailed via the post office, do not use any punctuation.

Example:

- I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.

- I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years.

Rule 7: Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth.

Example: Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III.

Rule 8: Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow.

Example: I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.

Rule 9: When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause.

Examples:

- If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

- Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Rule 10: Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional.

Examples:

- To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.

- On February 14 many couples give each other  candy or flowers.

OR

- On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers.

Rule 11: If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Examples:

- Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. (Freddy is named, so the description is not essential.)

- The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. (We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used.)

Rule 12: Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction–and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short.

Examples:

- I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors.

- I paint and he writes.

Rule 13: Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.

Example: I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.

Rule 14: A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation.

Incorrect:

- Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice)

- Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence)

Correct:

- Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun.

OR

- Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.)

OR

- Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.

Rule 15: If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.

Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

Rule 16: Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.

Examples:

- He actually said, “I do not care.”

- “Why,” I asked, “do you always forget to do it?”

Rule 17: Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Example: I can go, can’t I?

Rule 18: Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.

Rule 19: Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes.

Examples:

- Yes, I do need that report.

- Well, I never thought I’d live to see the day . . .

Rule 20: Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interrupters.

Examples:

- I would, therefore, like a response.

- I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.

Rule 21: Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word.

Examples:

- You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

OR

- You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

NOTE: i.e. means that is; e.g. means for example